南非的能源困境：採礦業和綠色能源的雙重打擊

南非最近宣布顯著改善能源供應，但遭到了質疑，批評者將其歸因於競選活動，而不是實質進展。該國向清潔能源的轉型雖然符合全球氣候目標，但引起了人們對其對礦產豐富地區社區影響的擔憂。再生能源技術中對關鍵礦物的高需求正在導致過度開採、環境退化和侵犯人權。儘管氣候談判遵循「共同但有區別的責任」原則，但南非等礦產資源豐富的國家卻為全球轉型承擔著資源開採的負擔，卻沒有為其公民提供足夠的補償或保護。

South Africa's Energy Crisis and the Double Whammy of Mining and the Green Revolution

南非的能源危機以及採礦業和綠色革命的雙重打擊

Amidst the ongoing energy crisis in South Africa, the country's electricity minister, Sputla Kgosientso, recently announced a significant improvement in the Energy Availability Factor (EAF), reaching 70.8% since 2021. However, this sudden boost has encountered skepticism from analysts and critics, who question whether it is merely an electioneering tactic by the ruling African National Congress (ANC).

在南非持續的能源危機中，該國電力部長Sputla Kgosientso 最近宣布能源可用性係數(EAF) 顯著改善，自2021 年以來達到70.8%。 。 他們質疑這是否只是執政的非洲人國民大會（ANC）的一種競選策略。

The skepticism stems from South Africa's commitment to the 2015 Paris Climate Change Agreement, which advocates for a low-carbon world and the elimination of fossil fuels like coal. However, the push for a 'green revolution' often overlooks the double burden faced by countries like South Africa.

這種懷疑源於南非對 2015 年《巴黎氣候變遷協議》的承諾，該協議主張建立低碳世界並消除煤炭等化石燃料。然而，推動「綠色革命」往往忽略了南非等國家面臨的雙重負擔。

While being pressured to abandon coal in favor of renewable energy, these countries also bear the responsibility of supplying critical minerals, known as energy transition minerals and metals (ETMs), which are essential for achieving a just energy transition. This double whammy is exemplified by the 2012 Marikana miners' killings and the rampant power outages in South Africa.

這些國家在被迫放棄煤炭而轉向再生能源的同時，也承擔著供應關鍵礦物的責任，這些礦物被稱為能源轉型礦物和金屬（ETM），這對於實現公正的能源轉型至關重要。 2012 年馬里卡納礦工被殺事件和南非大規模停電事件就是這種雙重打擊的例子。

This article aims to shed light on the challenges faced by communities in South Africa's platinum belt and Kalahari region, which are heavily impacted by mineral extraction. It critiques the international principle of 'common but differentiated responsibilities' for failing to protect mineral-rich countries like South Africa in the global pursuit of green energy.

本文旨在闡明南非鉑礦帶和卡拉哈里地區社區所面臨的挑戰，這些地區受到礦物開採的嚴重影響。它批評「共同但有區別的責任」國際原則未能在全球追求綠色能源的過程中保護南非等礦產資源豐富的國家。

The mining of critical minerals is a crucial component of a just energy transition. Forecasts indicate that ETMs are in high demand across various energy transition sectors, including transmission, distribution, electric vehicles, renewables, and energy storage. However, estimates of the volume of mineral resources required for global energy infrastructure changes vary widely.

關鍵礦物的開採是公正能源轉型的重要組成部分。預測表明，ETM 在各個能源轉型領域的需求量很大，包括輸電、配電、電動車、再生能源和能源儲存。然而，全球能源基礎設施變化所需礦產資源量的估計差異很大。

Factors such as technological advancements, policy decisions, and the stringency of future climate policies all contribute to the uncertainty surrounding ETM demand. The International Energy Agency (IEA) emphasizes that the most significant factor influencing demand variability is the uncertainty surrounding climate policies.

技術進步、政策決策以及未來氣候政策的嚴格性等因素都會導致 ETM 需求的不確定性。國際能源總署（IEA）強調，影響需求變化最重要的因素是氣候政策的不確定性。

The energy transition is expected to significantly increase demand for at least thirty ETMs, with lithium, graphite, cobalt, and nickel experiencing the fastest growth. Essential metals like copper and iron will also see a surge in demand due to their extensive use in power generation and transportation. Electric vehicles and hydrogen technology further drive the demand for various ETMs, including platinum-group metals.

能源轉型預計將顯著增加對至少 30 個 ETM 的需求，其中鋰、石墨、鈷和鎳的成長最快。由於銅和鐵等基本金屬在發電和運輸領域的廣泛應用，其需求也將激增。電動車和氫技術進一步推動了對包括鉑族金屬在內的各種 ETM 的需求。

While the Just Energy Transition (JET) is often hailed as a solution to the climate crisis, evidence points to a darker side within the green industry's supply chain. The Amsterdam-based Centre for Research on Multinational Corporations (SOMO) links the growing European demand for manganese in energy transition and steel production to human rights abuses by manganese mining companies in South Africa.

雖然正義能源轉型 (JET) 通常被譽為氣候危機的解決方案，但有證據表明綠色產業供應鏈中存在陰暗面。總部位於阿姆斯特丹的跨國公司研究中心 (SOMO) 將歐洲在能源轉型和鋼鐵生產中日益增長的錳需求與南非錳礦開採公司侵犯人權聯繫起來。

The International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD) refers to ETMs as "green conflict minerals," arguing that they can fuel conflicts in the transition to a low-carbon economy, particularly in countries with weak governance and political instability, where mineral extraction can lead to violence, conflict, and human rights violations.

國際永續發展研究所(IISD) 將ETM 稱為“綠色衝突礦物”，認為它們可能會助長向低碳經濟轉型過程中的衝突，特別是在治理薄弱和政治不穩定的國家，礦物開採可能導致這些國家的衝突加劇。

Amidst the global transition towards sustainable energy sources, significant pressure is exerted on resource-rich countries in the Global South, including South Africa. This focus on sustainability in the Global North intensifies the demand for steel, a resource-intensive material crucial for infrastructure development in the transition to a greener economy.

在全球轉型為永續能源的過程中，包括南非在內的資源豐富的南方國家面臨著巨大的壓力。北半球國家對永續發展的關注增加了對鋼鐵的需求，而鋼鐵是一種資源密集型材料，對於向綠色經濟轉型的基礎設施發展至關重要。

Renewable energy sources like wind, solar, and hydroelectric power heavily rely on steel for their construction. Manganese, often mined under conditions detrimental to human rights and the environment, is distributed globally, primarily for steel production. One-third of European manganese imports originate directly from South Africa, with a larger share entering the EU after refinement in China and Norway.

風能、太陽能和水力發電等再生能源的建設嚴重依賴鋼鐵。錳通常是在不利於人權和環境的條件下開採的，分佈在全球範圍內，主要用於鋼鐵生產。歐洲進口的錳有三分之一直接來自南非，其中較大部分在中國和挪威精煉後進入歐盟。

The Netherlands, the world's fourth-largest importer of ferromanganese, is a major consumer of manganese, which accounts for ninety percent of global manganese demand. The increased demand for manganese in Europe, driven by the energy transition and steel production, is directly linked to adverse human rights impacts.

荷蘭是全球第四大錳鐵進口國，是錳的主要消費國，佔全球錳需求的90%。在能源轉型和鋼鐵生產的推動下，歐洲對錳的需求不斷增加，這與不利的人權影響直接相關。

Renewable energy sources like wind turbines, batteries for electric vehicles, and energy storage are driving up the demand for crucial minerals in low- and middle-income countries such as Zambia, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and South Africa. However, SOMO research reveals that mining in these areas poses serious threats to the environment and human rights, with women and girls disproportionately affected.

風力渦輪機、電動車電池和儲能等再生能源正在推動贊比亞、剛果民主共和國和南非等中低收入國家對關鍵礦物的需求。然而，SOMO 的研究表明，這些地區的採礦活動對環境和人權構成嚴重威脅，其中婦女和女孩受到的影響尤其嚴重。

Manganese and platinum, among the top thirty key minerals essential for the energy transition, are mainly mined in South Africa, highlighting the potential for negative social and environmental impacts. This is particularly evident in the supply chains of these minerals from South Africa and their utilization in renewable energy technologies.

錳和鉑是能源轉型必不可少的前 30 名關鍵礦物之一，主要在南非開採，凸顯了潛在的負面社會和環境影響。這在南非這些礦物的供應鏈及其在再生能源技術中的利用尤其明顯。

Empirical evidence suggests that local communities, especially women in the Kalahari region (home to the world's largest manganese resources), are often excluded from decision-making processes regarding mining activities that directly affect them. Despite court rulings recognizing their right to free, prior and informed consent (FPIC), this right is often disregarded.

經驗證據表明，當地社區，特別是喀拉哈里地區（世界上最大的錳資源所在地）的婦女，常常被排除在直接影響她們的採礦活動的決策過程之外。儘管法院裁決承認他們享有自由、事先和知情同意 (FPIC) 的權利，但這項權利常常被忽視。

Furthermore, communities near mines face health risks like asbestosis and respiratory diseases and suffer from water scarcity and pollution, violating their right to a healthy environment and contravening existing international business and human rights instruments.

此外，礦井附近的社區面臨石棉肺和呼吸道疾病等健康風險，並遭受水資源短缺和污染，侵犯了他們享有健康環境的權利，並違反了現有的國際商業和人權文書。

While diligence laws in Europe, such as the Modern Slavery Act (UK) and the EU's Corporate Sustainability Due Diligence Directive (CS3D), purport to address these issues, they lack universal support due to criticisms of their 'neo-colonial' nature. Additionally, the absence of a binding treaty to hold companies accountable for human rights abuses creates a legal gap in the international system.

雖然歐洲的盡職調查法，例如《現代奴隸制法》（英國）和歐盟的企業可持續發展盡職調查指令（CS3D），旨在解決這些問題，但由於其「新殖民」性質受到批評，缺乏普遍支持。此外，缺乏具有約束力的條約來追究公司侵犯人權的責任，這在國際體系中造成了法律空白。

As a result, a governance mechanism mirroring the Kimberley Process (KP) for critical minerals accreditation has been proposed. However, in a world already laden with international norms and fierce capitalism, the realization of such a mechanism remains uncertain.

因此，提出了一個反映金伯利進程（KP）關鍵礦產認證的治理機制。然而，在一個已經充斥著國際規範和激烈資本主義的世界中，這種機制的實現仍然存在不確定性。

The killing of miners in Marikana in 2012 and the widespread load-shedding in South Africa are interconnected consequences of this paradox. The pressure to provide resources for the global green transition strains South Africa's energy grid and leads to labor unrest and instability. The Marikana killings served as a warning to oppressed black workers not to assert their labor rights, casting a shadow over the 'green revolution.'

2012 年馬里卡納礦工遇害事件和南非大面積斷電事件是這一悖論相互關聯的後果。為全球綠色轉型提供資源的壓力給南非的能源網帶來壓力，並導致勞工騷亂和不穩定。馬里卡納屠殺事件警告受壓迫的黑人工人不要維護自己的勞工權利，給「綠色革命」蒙上了陰影。

Climate negotiations must consider the double burden faced by mineral-rich countries, who suffer both from the negative impacts of transitioning away from traditional energy sources and the pressure to meet increasing global demand for minerals. The principle of 'common but differentiated responsibilities' acknowledges that all countries share responsibility for addressing global environmental issues, but their obligations differ based on historical contributions and current capacities.

氣候談判必須考慮礦產資源豐富的國家面臨的雙重負擔，這些國家既承受著從傳統能源轉型的負面影響，也承受著滿足全球不斷增長的礦產需求的壓力。 「共同但有區別的責任」原則承認，所有國家都對解決全球環境問題負有共同責任，但其義務因歷史貢獻和當前能力而異。

Future climate negotiations should explore ways to compensate countries like South Africa for the sacrifices they make in the global pursuit of decarbonization. This agenda must target governments of ETM-rich countries, governments in countries experiencing increased demand for manganese due to the transition to low-carbon technologies, mining companies, manufacturers of low-carbon technologies containing ETMs, end users of these technologies, and financial institutions with ties to ETM mining or usage.

未來的氣候談判應探討如何補償像南非這樣的國家在全球追求脫碳過程中所做的犧牲。該議程必須針對 ETM 豐富的國家政府、由於向低碳技術過渡而對錳的需求增加的國家政府、礦業公司、包含 ETM 的低碳技術製造商、這些技術的最終用戶以及金融機構與ETM 挖掘或使用相關。

South Africa's green transition is not merely an energy or technological challenge but also a social, economic, and environmental one. Global players cannot continue to ignore the double burden faced by mineral-rich countries in the name of a green revolution. A truly just transition must prioritize the rights and well-being of those most impacted, ensuring that the quest for a sustainable future does not perpetuate injustice.

南非的綠色轉型不僅是一項能源或技術挑戰，也是社會、經濟和環境挑戰。全球參與者不能繼續以綠色革命的名義忽視礦產資源豐富的國家所面臨的雙重負擔。真正公正的過渡必須優先考慮受影響最嚴重的人的權利和福祉，確保對永續未來的追求不會使不公現象長期存在。